The Kangxi Dictionary was the standard Chinese dictionary during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Kangxi Emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty ordered its compilation in 1710. The creator innovated greatly by reusing and confirming the new Zihui system of 596 radicals, since then known as 596 Kangxi radicals, and was eventually published in 1716. The dictionary is named after the Emperor's era name.
The dictionary contains more than 47,000 characters (including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters) but less than a quarter of these characters are now in common use.
Compilation
The Kangxi Dictionary editors, including Zhang Yushu and Chen Tingjing, partly based it on two Ming Dynasty dictionaries: the 1615 Zihui by Mei Yingzuo, and the 1627 Zheng Zitong by Zhang Zilie. Since the imperial edict required that the Kangxi Dictionary be compiled within five years, a number of errors were inevitable. The Daoguang Emperor established a review board and their 1831 corrected 2,588 mistakes, mostly in quotations and citations.
The supplemented dictionary contains 47,035 character entries, plus 1,995 graphic variants, giving a total of 49,030 different characters. They are grouped under the 596 radicals and arranged by the number of additional strokes in the character. Although these 596 radicals were first used in the Zihui, due to the popularity of the Kangxi Dictionary they are known as Kangxi radicals and remain in modern usage as a method to categorize traditional Chinese characters.
The character entries give variants, pronunciations in traditional fanqie spelling and in modern reading of a homophone, different meanings, and quotations from Chinese books and lexicons. The dictionary also contains rime tables with characters ordered under syllable rime classes, tones, and initial syllable onsets.
The Kangxi Dictionary is available in many forms, from old Qing Dynasty editions in block printing, to reprints in traditional Chinese bookbinding, to modern revised editions with essays in Western-style hardcover, to the digitized Internet version.
The Kangxi Dictionary is one of the Chinese dictionaries used by the Ideographic Rapporteur Group for the Unicode standard.
Industry:
Foochow Arsenal
The Foochow Arsenal, also Mawei Arsenal was one of several shipyards in China built under orders of Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang, leaders of the Qing government's Self-Strengthening Movement of the mid to late 19th century. The shipyard was situated in Mamoi, a port town within the jurisdiction of Foochow, which is several miles up the Min River.The Foochow Arsenal under construction, between 1867 and 1871. Three albumen prints joined to form a panorama.
Planning for the shipyard, the naval school, and other facilities began in 1866 and construction began in 1867. Two French Naval officers, Prosper Giquel and Paul d'Aiguebelle, both on leave from the French Imperial Navy, were contracted to recruit a staff of about forty European engineers and mechanics, and to oversee the construction of a metal-working forge, the creation of a Western-style naval dockyard, the construction of eleven transports and five gunboats, and the establishment of schools for training in navigation and marine engineering - all within a five year period. Chinese authorities provided the materials and labour; the operating cost over the five years was estimated at 3 million taels, and the cost of maintenance of the ships produced was partly funded by revenue from duties on the import of opium. The first ship produced at the Arsenal, the 150 horsepower Wan-nien Ch'ing, was launched in June 1869.
The shipyard was almost entirely destroyed by French forces in 1884 during the Sino-French War of 1883-1885, in the battle of Fuzhou.
Hanyang Arsenal
Hanyang Arsenal was one of the largest and oldest modern arsenals in Chinese history.
Originally known as the Hubei Arsenal, it was founded in 1891 by one of the Qing officials, Zhang Zhidong, who diverted funds from the Nanyang Fleet in Guangdong to build the arsenal. It cost about 250,000 pounds sterling and was built in 4 years. On 23 April 1894, construction was completed and the arsenal, occupying some 40 acres (160,000 m2), could start production of small-calibre cannons. It built rifles loaded with magazines, Gruson quick fire guns, and cartridges.
On 14 June 1894, an industrial accident started a fire in the arsenal that destroyed all the equipment and most of the structures in the arsenal. $1,000,000 in damages were reported. In July of the same year rebuilding began, and in August 1895, all was back to normal and the arsenal started production of German M1888 Commission rifles, locally called 7.92 cm Type 88 Mauser rifle (even though the Commission rifle was unrelated to the Mauser). At the same time, ammunition for the rifle were being produced at a rate of 13,000 rounds per month.
500,000 taels were spent annually in the arsenal, which constructed Mauser rifles and used steel from the works around Hanyang. Iron and coal mines surrounded the area. 160,000 Mausers were purchased by the Chinese military, along with mountain guns and small caliber versions. Smokeless powders was produced for guns at the a factory next to the arsenal. The arsenal itself built 40 Mausers a day, 6 field guns a month. Every day the following was manufactured: 300 shells, 35,000 rifle cartridges, 1,000 pounds smokeless powder. They were moved via Yangzi river until reaching Wuchang. Fortifications across China in the interior and on the coast received these weapons.
During the Boxer Uprising of 1900, the arsenal supplied the Boxers with more than 3,000 rifles and 1 million rounds of ammunition.
In 1904, the arsenal made several modifications to their design of the Type 88, and, at the same time, production capacity was expanded to 50 rifles and 12,000 rounds of ammunition per day. For a time in 1910, the arsenal switched to producing the Type 68 rifle, at a speed of 38 per day.
The quality of the firearms produced in this period was generally low, because the local steel foundries were often ill-equipped and badly managed.
Because of its proximity to Wuchang, the revolutionaries, during the Wuchang Uprising of Xinhai Revolution, largely equipped themselves with foreign and locally made weapons stored at this arsenal - some 7,000 rifles, 5 million rounds, 150 pack guns and 2,000 shells. The arsenal, in support of the revolution, switched into full gear and began producing weapons and ammo day and night.
The Republic of China expanded the arsenal numerous times, and production soared. Quality, however, remained low. In 1917, a training school was established alongside the arsenal. In 1921, production began on copies of the Browning M1917 and the Mauser M1932 "Broomhandle" pistol. In 1930, the design of the Type 88 was once again modified, extending the bayonet. In 1935, a version of the Maxim gun--the Type 24 HMG—was being produced, based on blueprints from the German M08.
As the Imperial Japanese Army approached Hanyang and Wuhan in 1938, the arsenal was forced to move to Hunan, with parts of its assets transferred to various other arsenals across the country. At Hunan, it continued production of the Type 88 rifle and carbine, and also Chinese version of 88 or Type Chungcheng style rifle.
With the Allies' victory in 1945, orders to the arsenal gradually stopped, and, on 1 July 1947, the arsenal was shut down. Many of the senior employees transferred to Formosa and built the basis of today's Taiwan arsenals.
On 14 June 1894, an industrial accident started a fire in the arsenal that destroyed all the equipment and most of the structures in the arsenal. $1,000,000 in damages were reported. In July of the same year rebuilding began, and in August 1895, all was back to normal and the arsenal started production of German M1888 Commission rifles, locally called 7.92 cm Type 88 Mauser rifle (even though the Commission rifle was unrelated to the Mauser). At the same time, ammunition for the rifle were being produced at a rate of 13,000 rounds per month.
500,000 taels were spent annually in the arsenal, which constructed Mauser rifles and used steel from the works around Hanyang. Iron and coal mines surrounded the area. 160,000 Mausers were purchased by the Chinese military, along with mountain guns and small caliber versions. Smokeless powders was produced for guns at the a factory next to the arsenal. The arsenal itself built 40 Mausers a day, 6 field guns a month. Every day the following was manufactured: 300 shells, 35,000 rifle cartridges, 1,000 pounds smokeless powder. They were moved via Yangzi river until reaching Wuchang. Fortifications across China in the interior and on the coast received these weapons.
During the Boxer Uprising of 1900, the arsenal supplied the Boxers with more than 3,000 rifles and 1 million rounds of ammunition.
In 1904, the arsenal made several modifications to their design of the Type 88, and, at the same time, production capacity was expanded to 50 rifles and 12,000 rounds of ammunition per day. For a time in 1910, the arsenal switched to producing the Type 68 rifle, at a speed of 38 per day.
The quality of the firearms produced in this period was generally low, because the local steel foundries were often ill-equipped and badly managed.
Because of its proximity to Wuchang, the revolutionaries, during the Wuchang Uprising of Xinhai Revolution, largely equipped themselves with foreign and locally made weapons stored at this arsenal - some 7,000 rifles, 5 million rounds, 150 pack guns and 2,000 shells. The arsenal, in support of the revolution, switched into full gear and began producing weapons and ammo day and night.
The Republic of China expanded the arsenal numerous times, and production soared. Quality, however, remained low. In 1917, a training school was established alongside the arsenal. In 1921, production began on copies of the Browning M1917 and the Mauser M1932 "Broomhandle" pistol. In 1930, the design of the Type 88 was once again modified, extending the bayonet. In 1935, a version of the Maxim gun--the Type 24 HMG—was being produced, based on blueprints from the German M08.
As the Imperial Japanese Army approached Hanyang and Wuhan in 1938, the arsenal was forced to move to Hunan, with parts of its assets transferred to various other arsenals across the country. At Hunan, it continued production of the Type 88 rifle and carbine, and also Chinese version of 88 or Type Chungcheng style rifle.
With the Allies' victory in 1945, orders to the arsenal gradually stopped, and, on 1 July 1947, the arsenal was shut down. Many of the senior employees transferred to Formosa and built the basis of today's Taiwan arsenals.
Jiangnan Shipyard
Jiangnan Shipyard is a historic shipyard located in Shanghai, China. The shipyard has been state owned since its founding in 1865 and is now operated by Jiangnan Shipyard Co. Ltd. Before 2009, the shipyard was located to the south of central Shanghi. In 2009, the shipyard was moved to Changxing Island, located in the mouth of the Yangtze River to the north of urban Shanghai. The new Shipyard is equipped with several super dry docks, capable of housing the construction of future aircraft carriers for the PLA Navy.
The shipyard builds, repairs and converts both civilian and military ships. Other activities include the manufacture of machinery and electrical equipment, pressure vessels and steel works for various land-based products.
The shipyard builds, repairs and converts both civilian and military ships. Other activities include the manufacture of machinery and electrical equipment, pressure vessels and steel works for various land-based products.
History:
Kiangnan Arsenal
Gun transportation at Shanghai Jiangnan arsenal, during the Self-Strengthening Movement.
The origins of the Jiangnan Shipyard lies in the Self-Strengthening Movement of the late 19th century in China, during the Qing Dynasty. One of the projects in this campaign of modernisation was the establishment of defence industries, including the Kiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai in 1865. Plans for the Arsenal were established under Zeng Guofan, who served as Viceroy of Liangjiang, although its actual establishment became the responsibilities of Li Hongzhang.
The Chinese name of the Kiangnan Arsenal was literally and in full, the General Bureau of Machine Manufacture of Jiangnan, or the Jiangnan Machine Works for short. It was established to both manufacture firearms and also to build naval vessels. The shipyard, plant and machinery were initially leased from Thomas Hunt and Company, an American firm located within the concessions of Shanghai. Due to the influx of workers and the reluctance of the concession authorities to allow arms to be manufactured within their territory, the Chinese authorities purchased the plant and equipment, and combined these with the existing assets of the old Suzhou and Anqing arsenals, as well as new equipment purchased by Yung Wing in the United States to form the new Kiangnan Arsenal in 1865.
The Kiangnan Arsenal was the largest of the arsenals established during the Self-Strengthening Movement, and also the one with the largest budget - from 1869, its annual budget was more than 400,000 silver taels. A series of high officials, including Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, and Zhang Zhidong served as its head, although Li Hongzhang served the longest term in this role during the Qing Dynasty. Most of the senior technical staff were Westerners, such as the first chief engineer, American T. F. Falls.
During the Tongzhi era, the Arsenal was the largest weapons factory in East Asia. Among its other achievements were the first domestically produced steam boat in 1868, and the first domestically produced steel in 1891.
As well as its manufacturing works, the Arsenal also comprised a language school, a translation house and a technical school.
Kiangnan Shipyard
In 1905, the ship-building operations of the Kiangnan Arsenal were de-merged into the separate Kiangnan Shipyard. In the 1920s Kiangnan built six new river gunboats for the US Navy's South China Patrol on the Yangtze River.
The remaining arms manufacturing arm of the Kiangnan Arsenal operated until its dissolution in 1937, at the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The shipyard was evacuated to Chongqing and re-established as the Chongqing Shipyard.
Large parts of the assets of both the Arsenal and the Shipyard were left behind in Shanghai to be occupied by Japanese forces during the war. During this period, the Japanese occupying forces absorbed the plant and equipment of the Arsenal into the Shipyard. This combination was not reversed after the surrender of Japan.
Jiangnan Shipyard after 1949
New location of Jiangnan Shipyard - Chanxingdao island
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China under the Communist Party of China in 1949, the shipyard changed its Chinese name to, literally, the Jiangnan Shipbuilding Factory in 1953. The shipyard was corporatised in 1996 and organised as a subsidiary of the state-owned China State Shipbuilding Corporation.
Beginning in 1964, the Communist government moved a number of industrial and technological institutions of strategic importance inland, in preparation for a potential war with either the United States or the Soviet Union. The Jiangnan Shipyard was again moved to Chongqing during this period. Although the Shipyard subsequently moved back to Shanghai, it retains two subsidiary shipyards in Chongqing.
The Jiangnan Shipyard remained a focus of investment by the Chinese government during this period. Amongst other "firsts" in the People's Republic were the first ten-thousand tonne hydraulic forging press, the first domestically designed ocean-going freight ship, the first ocean exploration and communication ship, the first liquid petroleum tanker, and the first sea-crossing train ferry.
Kiangnan Arsenal
Gun transportation at Shanghai Jiangnan arsenal, during the Self-Strengthening Movement.
The origins of the Jiangnan Shipyard lies in the Self-Strengthening Movement of the late 19th century in China, during the Qing Dynasty. One of the projects in this campaign of modernisation was the establishment of defence industries, including the Kiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai in 1865. Plans for the Arsenal were established under Zeng Guofan, who served as Viceroy of Liangjiang, although its actual establishment became the responsibilities of Li Hongzhang.
The Chinese name of the Kiangnan Arsenal was literally and in full, the General Bureau of Machine Manufacture of Jiangnan, or the Jiangnan Machine Works for short. It was established to both manufacture firearms and also to build naval vessels. The shipyard, plant and machinery were initially leased from Thomas Hunt and Company, an American firm located within the concessions of Shanghai. Due to the influx of workers and the reluctance of the concession authorities to allow arms to be manufactured within their territory, the Chinese authorities purchased the plant and equipment, and combined these with the existing assets of the old Suzhou and Anqing arsenals, as well as new equipment purchased by Yung Wing in the United States to form the new Kiangnan Arsenal in 1865.
The Kiangnan Arsenal was the largest of the arsenals established during the Self-Strengthening Movement, and also the one with the largest budget - from 1869, its annual budget was more than 400,000 silver taels. A series of high officials, including Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, and Zhang Zhidong served as its head, although Li Hongzhang served the longest term in this role during the Qing Dynasty. Most of the senior technical staff were Westerners, such as the first chief engineer, American T. F. Falls.
During the Tongzhi era, the Arsenal was the largest weapons factory in East Asia. Among its other achievements were the first domestically produced steam boat in 1868, and the first domestically produced steel in 1891.
As well as its manufacturing works, the Arsenal also comprised a language school, a translation house and a technical school.
Kiangnan Shipyard
In 1905, the ship-building operations of the Kiangnan Arsenal were de-merged into the separate Kiangnan Shipyard. In the 1920s Kiangnan built six new river gunboats for the US Navy's South China Patrol on the Yangtze River.
The remaining arms manufacturing arm of the Kiangnan Arsenal operated until its dissolution in 1937, at the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The shipyard was evacuated to Chongqing and re-established as the Chongqing Shipyard.
Large parts of the assets of both the Arsenal and the Shipyard were left behind in Shanghai to be occupied by Japanese forces during the war. During this period, the Japanese occupying forces absorbed the plant and equipment of the Arsenal into the Shipyard. This combination was not reversed after the surrender of Japan.
Jiangnan Shipyard after 1949
New location of Jiangnan Shipyard - Chanxingdao island
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China under the Communist Party of China in 1949, the shipyard changed its Chinese name to, literally, the Jiangnan Shipbuilding Factory in 1953. The shipyard was corporatised in 1996 and organised as a subsidiary of the state-owned China State Shipbuilding Corporation.
Beginning in 1964, the Communist government moved a number of industrial and technological institutions of strategic importance inland, in preparation for a potential war with either the United States or the Soviet Union. The Jiangnan Shipyard was again moved to Chongqing during this period. Although the Shipyard subsequently moved back to Shanghai, it retains two subsidiary shipyards in Chongqing.
The Jiangnan Shipyard remained a focus of investment by the Chinese government during this period. Amongst other "firsts" in the People's Republic were the first ten-thousand tonne hydraulic forging press, the first domestically designed ocean-going freight ship, the first ocean exploration and communication ship, the first liquid petroleum tanker, and the first sea-crossing train ferry.
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